Akukho ukuvezwa kokuhola okuphephile okuphephile. Uketshezi olunobuthi okungapheli kungaholela ohlwini olude lwezifo, kuhlanganise ne-anorexia, i- anemia , ukuthuthumela nokuzimpawu zamathumbu. Ukuvezwa kokuhola kunzima kakhulu ekuthuthukiseni ubuchopho, futhi ezinganeni kungabangela ukuphuza ukukhula, ukubambezeleka kokuthuthukiswa, nokuphuza kwengqondo.
Ngaphandle kokubhalwa komuntu, ukuvezwa okungahambi kahle nakho kunethonya elikhulu emnothweni.
Kucatshangwa ukuthi izindleko zokubambisana zibiza izindleko zaseMelika cishe ngamaRandi ayizigidi eziyizinkulungwane ezingu-50 ngonyaka. Ukuvezwa kokuhola kungavinjelwa futhi ukungenelela kuyindleko. Kuwo wonke amadola asetshenziswe ekunciphiseni ukutholakala okuholela ekukhuleni, kulinganiselwa ukuthi ukubuyela emphakathini kuphakathi kuka-R17 no-220.
Ucwaningo lubonisa ukuthi imiphumela yokuhola ekuphileni kwasekuqaleni ingadluliselwa empilweni yamuva. Ucwaningo oluningi luye lwagxila ekuqondeni ukuthi ukuhola kuhlotshaniswa nengqondo yokukhubazeka; Kodwa-ke, sifunda nokuningi mayelana nendlela ukuhola kuhlanganiswe ngayo ukuziphatha okubi nokuhlukumezeka. Ngokuqondile, i-"hypothetical-crime-hypothesis" iphakamisa ukuthi ukuhoxiswa kuholela ebugebengu.
Ingemuva
Ngo-1943, i-Byers neNkosi kuqala ukukhanyisa ubudlelwane phakathi kokuvezwa kokuhola kanye nokuziphatha okunonya nobudlova. Ngaphambi kwalesi sikhathi, kwakucatshangwa ukuthi ukwelashwa okufanele ukuvezwa kokuhola kuholele ekutheni akukho miphumela emibi yesikhathi eside.
Kodwa-ke, i-Byers yakhula ukuthi ukuhoxiswa kungaholela ekuziphatheni okubi ngemuva kokubheka ukuthi iziguli ezimbili ayeziphathise iziguli ezihamba phambili ezitholakalayo-zazihlasele othisha bazo esikoleni futhi zihlanganyela kwezinye izimo ezimbi.
Lapho beqhubeka nokuhlolwa, i-Byers neNkosi bathola ukuthi izingane ezingu-19 "ezihlengwe" ezingu-20 zabonisa izinkinga ezinkulu zokuziphatha nokuzicabangela esikoleni.
Nakuba i-Byers neNkosi babambelela ekuxhumaneni phakathi kokuhola nokuziphatha okubi ekuqaleni, kwakungakaze kube yi-1980 lapho ososayensi baqala ukuhlola ukuthi ukuvezwa okuholela kanjani kungadlala indima ekuziphatheni okubi, okubudlova, noma okuhlukumezayo.
Ucwaningo
Ake sihlole izifundo ezimbalwa ezisekela ukuxhumana phakathi kobugebengu namazinga okuhola. Intambo eyodwa evamile ehamba cishe nayo yonke izifundo ezihlolisisa ubudlelwane ukuthi lezi zifundo zibuye zenzeke emvelweni. Ngamanye amazwi, babheka esikhathini esedlule ukucacisa ubuhlobo esikhundleni sesikhathi esizayo (okungukuthi, ukulingwa okulawulwe ngokungahleliwe). Lesi sihlukaniso senza umqondo ophelele ngoba akuyona into ehlelekile ukuveza abahlanganyeli bezocwaningo ukuba bahole. Kodwa-ke, ngoba lezi zifundo zibuyiselwa emuva, kunzima ukusungula ubuhlobo bobuqotho beqiniso.
Noma kunjalo, ucwaningo olwandayo lusebenzisa idatha emele abantu, imizi, izifunda, uthi, futhi amazwe ahlukanisa ukuthi ukuholwa kuhlobene kanjani nobugebengu. Lokhu okutholwe kuye kwaphindaphindiwe ngezilinganiso eziningana, okuthuthukisa amandla azo. Njengoba imiphumela enjalo ikhula, kunzima ukunganaki iqiniso lokuthi ukuhola kungaholela ebugebengu.
Esifundweni sase-Australia sika-2016, u-Taylor kanye nabalobi ababambisene nabo bahlola amanani okulwa nobugebengu ngokushaya nokukhwabanisa njengomsebenzi wokugxilisa umoya emkhatsini weminyaka engu-15 no-24 ngaphambili. Isizathu sesikhathi sokugubha sasiwukuthi abacwaningi babefuna abantu ababenzile ubugebengu abaye bavezwa ukuhola ngesikhathi sokuthuthukiswa.
Abacwaningi bathola ubudlelwane obuqinile phakathi kokuphuma kokuqala kokuhola emoyeni nasezingeni lobugebengu eliqhubekayo. Okuphawulayo, u-Taylor kanye nosebenza nabo babhekene nezinto ezingaphazamisa izinhlangano, njengenani labantu abaqedile esikoleni esiphakeme naseningizimu. Ubugebengu buyathonywa yizici eziningi-noma izikole, ukunakekelwa kwezempilo okubi, ukungondleki kahle, nokutholakala kwamanye amakhemikhali angokwemvelo-futhi abacwaningi bathola ukuthi amazinga ahamba phambili ayingxenye eyodwa ebaluleke kakhulu ehlobene nobugebengu.
Njengase-United States, e-Australia ingomunye wabakhiqizi abahola phambili emhlabeni.
Ngokombono womlando, ukuhola kutholakale ekupendekeni, uphethiloli, kanye nokukhishwa kwemisebenzi yezimayini kanye nokukhwabanisa. Phakathi kuka-1932 no-2002-unyaka owaholela ekugcineni ususwe e-petroli e-Australia-ukukhishwa kwephesolini eholele kudlule amathani angu-240 000 kanye nokukhishwa kwamanzi amaminerali nokukhwehlela. Inothi, e-United States, ukuhola ekugcineni kwaqothulwa uphethiloli ngo-1996.
Ngokusho kukaT Taylor no-co-author:
Izinyathelo kudingeka zithathwe ukunciphisa noma ukuqeda imithombo ekhona yendawo yokungcola okuholela emoyeni lapho kunokwenzeka khona. Ukuvezwa okuvela kule mithombo kunomthelela wokukhulisa ukuziphatha okuphikisana nomphakathi nokubeka izindleko zomphakathi ezingadingekile. Le mithombo ihlanganisa imisebenzi esebenzayo yezimayini kanye ne-smelting e-Australia nakwezinye izindawo, bese kusetshenziswa ukusetshenziswa kukaphethiloli [i-petroli] emazweni lapho isathengiswa khona: i-Algeria, i-Iraq ne-Yemen. Kula mazwe, abantu abayizigidi ezingu-103 bahlala engozini ngenxa yokusetshenziswa kwephethiloli yokuhola. Kukhona nemithelela emiphakathini emiphakathini eye ethinteke ngokomlando ngokufakwa kwesimo sezulu ezindaweni ezinabantu ezifana namakhaya, izingadi, izindawo zokudlala kanye nezikole. Lezi zimali zifaka ingozi eqhubekayo ngoba ingxenye yokuphila kwemvelo ihamba iminyaka engaphezu kuka-700.
Okubaluleke kakhulu, ukucaphuna okuphambene nakho kubonisa ukuthi ngisho noma ukuhola uma ukukhishwa okuholela ekunqunyeni, ukuholwa kusenamathela emakhaya, ezindaweni zokudlala, nasezikoleni, lapho kungagcina khona amakhulu eminyaka.
Esifundweni saseMelika sika-2016, uFeigenbaum noMeller bafaka umbuzo wocwaningo olufika ngesikhathi: Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ukusetshenziswa kwamapayipi okuhola emisebenzini yamanzi yomphakathi kwakunamathele ekukhuleni kwamazinga okubulala abakudala. Lo mbuzo wokucwaninga ufike ngesikhathi ngoba ngo-2015, amazinga aphezulu okuhola atholakala emithonjeni yamanzi kaFlint, eMichigan, futhi lokhu kuholwa kuvela ekubhubhiseni kwamapayipi okuhola emanzini lapho umuzi ushintsha amanzi ayo ngokulinganisa izindleko 2014.
Ukunquma ukuthi amazinga okuhola ayehlobene yini nokubulala, abacwaningi bahlola izinga lokubulala phakathi kuka-1921 no-1936 phakathi kwabantu abahlala emadolobheni. Lezi zindleko zisebenza kwisizukulwane sokuqala sabantu abakhuliswe emanzini anikezwa ngamapayipi okuhola. Amapayipi okuhola ayefakwe ngobuningi ngasekupheleni kwekhulu leshumi nesishiyagalolunye. Abacwaningi bathola ukuthi ukusetshenzwa kwamapayipi enkonzo okuholayo kwahlanganiswa nokwanda okukhulu kwezinga lokubulala abantu emadolobheni. Ngokuqondile, kwaba nokwanda kwamaphesenti angama-24 ekuhlaleni kwabantu emadolobheni asebenzisa amapayipi okuhola.
"Uma ukuhoxiswa kokuhola kukhulisa ubugebengu," bhala u-Feigenbaum no-Muller, "ke ikhambi lokutshala imali ekuhoxisweni okuholela phambili. Ngisho noma ukususwa kokuhola ngeke kunciphise ubugebengu, kuzosusa i-toxin eyingozi emvelweni. Amanye amasu okunciphisa ubugebengu angeke abe nemiphumela emibi efanayo. "
Esifundweni sika 2017 sokuhlola izingane ezingu-120 000 ezazalwa phakathi kuka-1990 no-2004 e-Rhode Island, i-Aizer no-Currie bahlola ukuhlobana phakathi kwamazinga okuhola esikoleni samabanga asekuqaleni kanye nokumiswa kwesikole kanye nokugcinwa kwezingane. Ngokusho kwabacwaningi, "Ukwanda kweyunithi yokuhola kukhulise amathuba okumiswa esikoleni ngamaphesenti angu-6.4-9.3 kanye namathuba okuboshwa ngamaphesenti angu-27-74, nakuba lokhu kusebenza kuphela kubafana."
Abacwaningi babheka izingane ezazihlala eduze nemigwaqo ematasa futhi zazalwa ekuqaleni kwawo-1990. Inhlabathi eduze nemigwaqo ematasa yayingcoliswe ukuqhutshwa phambili kokusetshenziswa kwephethiloli eholeleke emashumini eminyaka, kanti lezingane zazinamazinga aphezulu okuhola. Abacwaningi baqhathanisa la bantwana nabantwana abahlala eminye imigwaqo kanye nabantwana abahlala emigwaqweni efanayo kodwa eminyakeni eyalandela lapho amazinga emvelo wokuhola ewela.
Ngokusekelwe ekutholeni kwabo, i-Aizer noCrrie basikisela ukuthi ukushintshwa okubangelwa ukuphefumula uphethiloli ongenalutho kunendima enkulu ekunciphiseni ubugebengu obonakala ngawo-1990 no-2000.
Ekugcineni, ocwaningweni luka-2004, uStretesky noLynch bahlola inhlangano phakathi kwamazinga okuhola emoyeni nobugebengu ku-2772 amanani ase-US. Ngemva kokulawula izici eziningana eziphazamisayo, abacwaningi bathola ukuthi amazinga okuhola enza umthelela oqondile ezindlini nasezinhlakalweni zobugebengu obunobudlova. Okubaluleke kakhulu, abacwaningi baphinde baqaphela ukuthi izifundazwe ezingenasisindo, noma ezihlwempu kakhulu, zathola ubugebengu obukhulu kakhulu njengomphumela wokuholela ekuholeni.
"Uma lokhu kucabangela kuqinisile," bhala uStretesky noLynch, "ukuqinisa ukuhlola ukuhlolwa, ukuvimbela, kanye nemithi yokwelashwa kufanele kube nenzuzo enkulu kunazo zonke ezinkampanini ezinqatshelwe kakhulu."
Ngaphezu kwalokho, ngokusho kwabacwaningi:
Ukuvezwa kokuhola kunezigaba zombili kanye nobuhlanga obuhle obusebenza ezingeni lezenhlalo. Imikhakha engaphansi kanye nemiphakathi emincane inamathuba amaningi kunamanye amaqembu angenayo noma amahlanga ukuze abe nemiphumela ephakanyisiwe yokuvezwa kokuhola. Yize umjaho kanye neklasini kuhlanganiswa amaphethini wokudonswa kokuhola akuzona ngokwabo okwanele ukuchaza umehluko ezingeni lobugebengu obutholakala kulo lonke uhlanga nobuhlanga, lezi zindlela zokutshengisa zihambisana nokuthola izigebengu futhi zingachaza ngokucacile la mahluko. Ukuhlolwa okwengeziwe kwalolu daba kuyadingeka ukucacisa lobu buhlobo.
Indlela
Asazi kahle ukuthi ukuvezwa kokuhola kungenza kanjani ukulinganisa umsebenzi wobugebengu. Noma kunjalo, abacwaningi banombono wabo.
Okokuqala, ukuvezwa kokuholela kungaholela ekunciphiseni ukulawula umfutho futhi kuthinte ukuthambekela kokufutheka. Abantu abanobudlova futhi abahlukumezayo bangaqhubeka bezokwenza ubugebengu.
Okwesibili, amazinga okuhola aphezulu egazini ngesikhathi esengumntwana aye ahlotshaniswa nomthamo wezobuchopho obuncitshiwe ngesikhathi usukhulile. Lezi zimpawu zibonwa ema-prefrontal nase-anterior cortices zangaphakathi-izingxenye zobuchopho ezilawula ukusebenza komsebenzi, imizwa, nokwenza izinqumo. Lezi zindlela ekusetshenzisweni kobuchopho nokusebenza kobuchopho zingabamba ngandlela-thile ukuthi zibandakanye futhi zidlale indima emisebenzini yamuva yobugebengu.
Okwesithathu, izimo zokuthi "i-neurotoxicity hypothesis" eziholela ekuvezeni ukuphazamiseka ziphazamisa i-neurotransmitter namahomoni ngendlela eyenza ukuziphatha okubi nobudlova.
Encwadini yokugcina, ukutadisha okwengeziwe kuyadingeka ngaphambi kokumemezela ukuholela imbangela yangempela yobugebengu. Noma kunjalo, izazi zezenhlalo, izazi ze-criminologists, kanye nezomthetho zingasebenzisa lezi zifundo ukuthuthukisa ukuqonda kwabo ubuhlobo phakathi kobugebengu nokuhola.
> Imithombo:
> Feigenbaum, JJ, Muller, C. Ukuboniswa Kwamakhombandlela kanye nobugebengu obunobudlova emashumini amabili okuqala.
> Century. Ukuhlola emlandweni wezomnotho. 2016; 62: 51-86.
> Izindwangu ezinkulu. Ku: Trevor AJ, Katzung BG, Kruidering-Hall M. eds. I-Katzung & Trevor's Pharmacology: Ukuhlolwa Nokuhlolwa KweBhodi, 11e eNew York, NY.
> Marcus, DK, Fulton, JJ, Clarke, EJ. Izinkinga Zokuhola Nokuziphatha: I-Meta-Analysis. I-Journal ye-Clinical Child & I-Psychology ye-Adolescent. 2010; 39: 234-241.
> Stretesky, PB, Lynch, MJ. Ubudlelwano Phakathi Kokuhola Nobugebengu. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 2004; 45: 214-229.
> Taylor, MP, et al. Ubudlelwane Phakathi Kokukhishwa Kwezingqalasizinda Zase-Atmospheric Nokulwa nobugebengu obuhlukumezayo: Isifundo Sezinto Eziphilayo. Health Environmental. 2016; 15:23.