Umlando we-HIV
Ubhubhane lwe-AIDS lwaluthi -kanti abanye bangaphikisana namanje-kuyinkimbinkimbi enkulu yempilo yomhlaba wonke emlandweni wanamuhla. Nakuba ezinye izifo zengculaza zazifana nokusabalalisa nokubulala (phakathi kwabo isifo sofuba kanye ne-malaria), amagagasi okufa okubangelwa yi-AIDS ayengakaze abe khona.
Phakathi nesikhathi esincane seminyaka embalwa, sabona ukufa okuhlobene ne-AIDS kusuka emashumini ambalwa angama-gay e-US kuya kwamakhulu ezinkulungwane ngaphesheya kwezindawo zomhlaba.
Iqiniso lokuthi sasingakaze sibone izifo ezinjengalezi futhi asikwazanga ukubona indlela yokumisa nje yanezela ekukhuleni okukhulu phakathi kwababili nabenzi bomgomo ngokufanayo.
Kusukela "IsiGwebo Sokufa" kuya kwiSikhathi Esijwayelekile Sokuphila
Ngasekuqaleni kwawo-1990, i-HIV / AIDS yaba yimbangela eyodwa yokufa kwabantu baseMelika abaneminyaka engama-24 kuya ku-45. Ngonyaka ka-1999, kwaqeda zonke ezinye izifo njengezimbangela ezibulalayo zokufa e-Afrika kanye necala lesine eliholela ekufeni emhlabeni wonke .
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'Zero Patient' isuliwe ukuqalisa US AIDS Isifo
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Okwenza Usuku Lomhlaba We-AIDS Lube Lusizo Njengoba Kukhona
Noma kunjalo, ngenxa yokwesaba nokuthukuthela lesi sifo kubangele, i-HIV yashintsha indawo yezesayensi nezombusazwe njengoba siyazi. Ludlulisela ubuchwepheshe bezokwelapha ezimpandeni zabo zobukhokho kuya kwelinye elikhuthaza amalungelo kanye nokuvikelwa kweziguli. Iphoqelela ukulandelela okusheshayo kwezinqubo zokugunyazwa kwezidakamizwa ngenkathi kuqhutshwa abacwaningi ukuthuthukisa amathuluzi amaningi ezakhi zofuzo esithatha kalula namuhla.
Iqiniso lokuthi i-HIV isuke isuke isifo esiyingozi ngokungafani naleso esiphila kuso manje abantu abaphila kahle, ukuphila okuvamile akuyona into emangalisa kakhulu. Noma kunjalo, sinendlela ende yokuya nezifundo eziningi zokufunda ngaphambi kokuba sicabange ngale nkinga.
Kuyinto nje ngokubuka emuva ukuthi singakwazi ukuqonda kangcono izinselelo okuzobhekana nazo njengoba sihamba ekwenzeni i-HIV into yesikhathi esedlule.
1981
Ngo-Meyi, i-US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) yabika ukuthi amadoda angama-gay amahlanu aseLos Angeles, CA ayesungula ukutheleleka kwamaphaphu angavamile okuthiwa i-pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) kanye nezinye izifo ezihambisana nokugwinya komzimba uhlelo. Ngesikhathi sokukhululwa kombiko, amadoda amabili asefile kakade.
NgoDisemba, amacala afanayo angu-270 abike kulokho abacwaningi babememezela i-GRID (noma ukuntuleka kwamagciwane okuhlobene nomzimba). Kulabo abakhethiwe, abangu-112 babulawe yilesi sifo phakathi nonyaka.
1982
Njengoba lesi sifo saqala ukusabalalisa ngaphandle kwamadoda angama-gay nakwamanye amaqembu abantu, i-CDC yaveza igama elithi i- AIDS (noma lathola ukuzivikela kwe-immune) kulesi sichazamazwi sempilo yomphakathi, esichaza njengesifo "esivela kumuntu ongenacala eyaziwayo yokumelana nokunciphisa kulesi sifo. "
1983
Abacwaningi e-Pasteur Institute eFrance, kuhlanganise noFrançoise Barré Sinoussi noLuc Montagnie r, bahlonze i-retrovirus yamano abaye bayishaya i-LAV (i-lymphadenopathy virus ehlobene) futhi baphakamisa ukuthi kungaba imbangela ye-AIDS.
Njengoba lesi sifo saqhubeka sisakaze ngaphesheya komphakathi wama-gay, i-CDC yaqinisekisa ukuthi ubulili nokuchayeka kwegazi kwakuyizindlela ezimbili ezinkulu zokudluliselwa kwegciwane elingenalo igama.
1984
Umcwaningi waseMelika uRobert Gallo wamemezela ukuthi ukutholakala kwe-retrovirus ebizwa nge-HTLV-III (igciwane lesifo sohlobo lwe-T-tropic) okwakungakholelwa ukuthi yimbangela ye-AIDS. Lesi simemezelo saqala ukungqubuzana ngokuthi ngabe i-LAV ne-HiTLV-III yayigciwane elifanayo nokuthi yiliphi izwe elinamalungelo obunikazi.
Ekupheleni konyaka, izikhulu zaseSan Francisco zala ukuvalwa kwezindawo zokugezela gay-ezithathwa njengezingozi zomphakathi lapho kubhekene nogagasi olukhulayo lwezifo nokufa phakathi kwamadoda angama-gay.
1985
NgoJanuwari, i-CDC ibike ukuthi i-AIDS ibangelwa igciwane elisanda kutholakala, lilandelwa maduzane ngezindaba ukuthi i-US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) ivume ukuhlolwa kokuqala kwe- anti-antibody okwazi ukuthola igciwane kuma-sampuli egazi.
Phakathi naleso sikhathi, kubikwa ukuthi uRyan White, osemusha wase-Indiana, unqatshelwe ukungena esikoleni sakhe esiphakeme ngemuva kokuthola i-AIDS ekumpomeni igazi.
Ezinyangeni ezimbili kamuva, umdlali we-Rock Hudson wabulawa yizifo ezihlobene ne-AIDS, waba yindodana yokuqala ehloniphekile yokufa ngenxa yesifo.
I- AIDS Memorial Quilt yamukelwa ngu-activist Cleve Jones ukukhumbula izimpilo ezilahlekelwe yi-HIV. Iphaneli ngayinye ye-3x5 yanikeza intela kumuntu oyedwa noma ngaphezulu owafa ngesifo.
1986
NgoMeyi, iKomidi Lamazwe Omhlaba We-Taxonomy of Viruses lakhipha isitatimende lapho kuvunyelwene khona ukuthi igciwane elibangela i-AIDS lizobizwa ngokusemthethweni ngokuthi i- HIV (noma isifo sengculaza somuntu) .
1987
Umdlali wezemidlalo waseMelika u-Larry Kramer wasungula u-ACT UP (i-AIDS Coalition kuya ku-Unleash Power) eNew York, NY ukuphikisa ukuqhubeka kukahulumeni ku-AIDS ekhulayo e-US
Phakathi naleso sikhathi, i-US neFrance bavuma ukuthi i-LAV ne-HTLV-III beyi-virus efanayo futhi bavuma ukwabelana ngamalungelo obunikazi, basakaza iningi lemikhakha yokucwaninga nge-AIDS emhlabeni wonke.
Ngo-Mashi, i-FDA ivume i- AZT (i-zidovudine) njengesidakamizwa sokuqala sokulwa negciwane lesandulela ngculazi. Ngokushesha ngemva kwalokho, bavuma ukusheshisa inqubo yokwamukelwa kwezidakamizwa, ukunciphisa isikhathi senkambiso yenqubo eminyakeni emibili kuya kweyithathu.
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Ingabe Isikhathi Sokuthatha Umhlalaphansi "I-AIDS" kusuka ku-HIV / AIDS?
I-HIV eChina - I-HIV Emhlabeni Wonke - i-AIDS eChina
1988
U-Elizabeth Glaser, umkami we- Starsky & Hutch inkanyezi uPaul Michael Glaser, wasungula i-Pediatric AIDS Foundation (kamuva waqamba kabusha i-Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation) ngemuva kokuthola i-HIV ekumpompheni kwegazi. Ngokushesha uthando lwaba yizikhulu zezimali ze-AIDS emhlabeni jikelele. .
Usuku lwe-AIDS emhlabeni wonke lwaqalwa okokuqala ngqa ngoDisemba 1.
1989
Ngo-Agasti, i-CDC ibike ukuthi inani lama-AIDS amacala e-US lifinyelele ku-100,000.
1990
Ukufa kwezingane zase-Indiana e-Ryan White ngo-Ephreli kwavusa ukuqhuma kwemibhikisho njengoba izikhulu zikahulumeni zisolwa ngokuqhubeka nokungenzi lutho. I-Congress Yase-US yasabela ngokuvuma uMthetho we-Ryan White Comprehensive Emergency Emergency (CARE) Act ka-1990, oklanyelwe ukuhlinzeka ngemali ehambisana nokunakekelwa kwe-HIV kanye nabanikeli bezinsizakalo ezisekelwe emphakathini.
1992
I-AIDS yaba yimbalo eyodwa ebangela ukufa kwamadoda aseMelika aneminyaka engu-24 kuya ku-45.
1993
I-CDC yandisa incazelo ye-AIDS ukufaka abantu abanezibalo ze- CD4 ngaphansi kuka-200. NgoJuni, uMengameli uBill Clinton wasayina umthetho umthetho ovumela ukuvinjelwa kwabo bonke abafuduki abane-HIV.
1994
I-AIDS yaba yimbangela yokufa kwabantu bonke baseMelika abaneminyaka engama-24-45.
Phakathi naleso sikhathi, kukhishwe ukuhlolwa kwe-ACTG 076 ephawulekayo, okwabonisa ukuthi i-AZT inikezwe ngaphambi nje kokuba ukulethwa kunganciphisa kakhulu ingozi ye-HIV kumama kuya kwengane ngesikhathi sokukhulelwa . Imiphumela yalandelwa ngokushesha ngokukhishwa kwemikhombandlela yokuqala evela ku-US Public Health Service (USPHS) ecela ukusetshenziswa kwe-AZT kwabesifazane abakhulelwe abane-HIV.
1995
I-FDA ivume i-Inivirase (saquinivir), i-protease yokuqala ye-inhibitor-class drug eyethulwa ku-arsenal ye-antiretroviral. Ukusetshenziswa kwe-protease inhibitors kwathinta esikhathini se- HAART (ukwelapha okudambisa amagciwane ephezulu) lapho kuhlanganiswa khona izidakamizwa ezintathu noma ngaphezulu ukuphatha i-HIV.
Ekupheleni konyaka, abantu abangu-500 000 baseMelika babike ukuthi banesandulela ngculaza.
1996
I-FDA ivume ukuhlolwa kokuqala kwegciwane lesandulela ngculazi ekwazi ukukala izinga le-HIV emzimbeni womuntu kanye nekithi yokuqala yokuhlolwa kwekhaya le-HIV kanye nomuthi wokuqala ongenawo nucleoside obizwa nge-Viramume (nevirapine).
Ngonyaka ofanayo, i-USPHS yakhipha izincomo zayo zokuqala mayelana nokusetshenziswa kwezidambisigciwane ukuze kuncishiswe ingozi yokutheleleka kubantu abangengozini yokudalula i-HIV kuzilungiselelo zezempilo. Isiphakamiso se-USPHS sokuthunyelwa kwe- post-exposure prophylaxis (i-PEP) sakha isisekelo sokwelashwa kokuvimbela uma kwenzeka ukuvezwa ngokocansi, ukudlwengula, noma ukuvezwa kwegazi ngengozi.
I-AIDS Memorial Quilt, enezinhlaka ezingaphezu kuka-40,000, yafakwa kwiNational Mall eWashington, DC futhi yahlanganisa yonke indawo yepaki kazwelonke kazwelonke.
1997
I-CDC ibike ukuthi ukusetshenziselwa kabanzi kwe-HAART kuye kwanciphisa kakhulu ingozi yezifo nokufa okuhlobene ne-HIV, kanti amazinga okufa awela ngamaphesenti angama-47 aqhathaniswa nonyaka odlule.
Phakathi naleso sikhathi, Uhlelo lweZizwe Ezihlangene mayelana neHIV / AIDS (UNAIDS) lwabika ukuthi cishe abantu abayizigidi ezingu-30 banesandulela ngculazi emhlabeni wonke, kanti ne-Afrika eseningizimu ibhekana nengxenye yazo zonke izifo ezintsha.
1998
I-CDC yakhipha iziqondiso zokuqala zokwelapha ze-HIV ngo-Ephreli, ngenkathi iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-United States inqume ukuthi uMthetho wama-Amandla aseMelika onokukhubazeka (ADA) wawuhlanganisa bonke abantu abaphila negciwane lesandulela ngculazi.
1999
I-World Health Organization (WHO) ibike ukuthi i-HIV yimbangela eholela ekufeni e-Afrika kanye necala lesine eliholela ekufeni emhlabeni wonke. U-WHO uphinde walinganisa ukuthi abantu abayizigidi ezingu-33 babelokhu benesandulela kusukela ekuqaleni kwesi sifo nokuthi sekuphelile izigidi ezingu-14 ngenxa yezifo ezihambisana ne-HIV.
2000
I-XIII Ingqungquthela Yomhlaba Wonke Yengculazi eThekwini, iNingizimu Afrika yaqubuzana lapho uMengameli uThabo Mbeki , ekhulwini lokuqala, eveza ukungabaza ngokuthi ngabe i-HIV ibangelwa i-AIDS. Ngenkathi yenkomfa, iNingizimu Afrika yayine (futhi iyaqhubeka ibe nayo) abantu abaningi kakhulu abaphila negciwane lesandulela ngculaza emhlabeni.
2002
I- Global Fund yokulwa ne-AIDS, isifo sofuba kanye ne-Malaria yasungulwa eGeneva, eSwitzerland ukuze isetshenziselwe ukuxhasa ngemali izinhlelo ze-HIV emazweni asathuthuka. Ngesikhathi sesisekelo sayo, ukutheleleka okusha kwezigidi ezingu-3.5 kwabikwa e-Afrika eseningizimu yeSahara.
Ngesikhathi esifanayo, ngomzamo wokwenza ukuhlolwa kwe-HIV e-US, i-FDA ivumile ukuthi ukuhlolwa kwegazi lokuqala kwe-HIV okusheshayo kwakwazi ukuletha imiphumela kungakapheli imizuzu engu-20 ngokunemba okuyi-99.6%.
2003
UMengameli uGeorge HW Bush umemezele ukwakheka koMkhankaso kaMengameli we-Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (i-PEPFAR), owaba yindlela enkulu yokuxhasa nge-HIV ngezwe elilodwa lomnikelo. Ngokungafani ne-Global Fund, eyanikeza amazwe amandla okulinganisa ukuthi izimali zingasetshenziswa kanjani, i-PEPFAR yathatha ukuzisebenzisa ngezindlela eziphakeme kakhulu zokuqapha izinhlelo kanye nezinyathelo.
Isivivinyo sokuqala sokugoma i-HIV , usebenzisa umgomo wokugonywa kwe-AIDVAX, wehlulekile ukunciphisa izinga lokutheleleka phakathi kwabahlanganyeli bokufunda. Kwakuyizilingo zokuqala zokugoma ezigcina ukuhluleka ukufeza amazinga afanelekayo okuvikelwa kubantu abane-HIV noma labo abahlose ukugwema lesi sifo.
Phakathi naleso sikhathi, isidakamizwa esilandelayo se-nucleotide-class, i- Viread (tenofovir) , yamukelwa yi-FDA. Isidakamizwa, esiboniswe ukuthi siphumelele ngisho nabantu abaphikisana kakhulu neminye imithi ye-HIV, yasheshe yahanjiswa phezulu ohlwini lwezokwelapha olukhethwayo lwase-US.
2006
Ngokusho kwe-WHO, abantu abangaphezu kwezigidi ezibekwe emithini yokwelashwa ngezidambisigciwane, ukunyuka kwama-10 kusukela ekuqalisweni kwemizamo ye Global Fund kanye ne-PEPFAR.
Ngonyaka ofanayo, abacwaningi abanezikhungo zikazwelonke zezeMpilo (NIH) babike ukuthi ukuvivinya komtholampilo eKenya nase-Uganda kwamiswa ngemuva kokuba kuboniswe ukuthi ukusoka kwabesilisa kunganciphisa ingozi yomuntu yokuthola i-HIV ngamaphesenti angama-53.
Ngokufanayo, i-CDC ikhishwe izingcingo zokuhlola i-HIV kubo bonke abantu abaneminyaka engama-13 kuya ku-64 , kufaka phakathi ukuhlolwa konyaka owodwa kubantu ababhekwa njengengozi enkulu.
2007
I-CDC ibike ukuthi abantu abangu-565,000 baseMelika bashonile nge-HIV kusukela ekuqaleni kwesi sifo. Kwabikwa futhi ukuthi izifo zokutheleleka okusha kubantu abesilisa ocansini nabesilisa zazikhuphuka, kanti amanani alinganiselwa kabili phakathi kwabesilisa abasha abesilisa abaphakathi kweminyaka engu-13 no-18.
Ukukhathazeka okungekho okuncane kwaba yizigidi ezingamaMelika ezingu-1.2 ezilinganiselwa ukuthi ziphila ne-HIV, cishe amaphesenti angama-20 kuya ku-25 ahlala engazi lutho ngesimo sabo.
2008
UThimothy Brown, owaziwayo ngokuthi " uMgulane waseBerlin ," kubikwe ukuthi uphulukiswe ngegciwane lesandulela ngculazi ngemuva kokuthola ukufakelwa kwesitembu se-stem esilingo. Ngenkathi le nqubo ibhekwa njengengozi kakhulu futhi ibiza kakhulu ukuba isetshenziswe esimweni sempilo yomphakathi, yenze ezinye izifundo zithemba ukuphinda imiphumela.
2010
Ukubusa kuka-Obama kuqeda ngokusemthethweni ukuvinjelwa kwe- HIV kanye nokuvinjelwa kwezokuvakasha kwe-US .
NgoNovemba, abacwaningi abane-IPrEx Study babike ukuthi ukusetshenziswa kwansuku zonke komuthi we-Truvada (tenofovir + emtricitabine) kunciphisa ingozi yokutheleleka kumadoda angama-gay angenayo i-HIV ngamaphesenti angu-44. Kwakuyisifundo sokuqala sokuvumela ukusetshenziswa kwe- pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) ukunciphisa ingozi ye-HIV kubantu abangenalo igciwane.
2011
Isifundo se-HPTN 052 sabizwa ngokusemthethweni ngokuthi Ukuqhuma koMnyaka yiSayensi yeSayensi ngemuva kokuthi kubonise ukuthi abantu abane-antiretroviral therapy babengamaphesenti angama-96 amathuba okudlulisela i-HIV komlingani ongenalo igciwane uma bengakwazi ukugcina umthamo ongavamile wegciwane . Ucwaningo luqinisekisile ukusetshenziswa kweTranscription njenge-Prevention (TasP) njengendlela yokuvimbela ukusakazwa kwe-HIV emibhangqweni ye-serodiscordant (isimo esixutshwe).
2012
Naphezu kokuguqulwa kokufa kwe-HIV, izikhulu zezempilo eNingizimu Afrika zibike ukuthi inani lezifo ezintsha liye lakhuphuka ngaphezu konyaka odlule ngamaphesenti angaphezu kuka-100 000, ikakhulukazi phakathi kwabantu abadala nentsha.
I-FDA ivume ngokusemthethweni ukusetshenziswa kweTruvada ye-PrEP . Kwafika ngesikhathi lapho i-US ibike khona izifo ezintsha ezingaphezu kuka-50,000, isibalo esasilokhu singasashintshi kusukela ngo-2002.
2013
UMongameli uBarack Obama wasayina umthetho we- HIV Organ Policy Equity (HOPE) uMthetho , ovumela ukufakelwa kwezitho zomnikeli ophikisana ne-HIV kumamukeli ongu-HIV.
I-UNAIDS yamemezela ukuthi izinga lokutheleleka elisha emazweni aphansi kuya kwaphakathi ahlahle ngamaphesenti angu-50 ngenxa yendlela yokwandisa izinhlelo zokwelapha i-HIV. Baphinde babike ukuthi abantu abangaba ngu-35.3 million banesandulela ngculaza.
I-FDA ivumile i-integrase inhibitor-class drug Tivicay (dolutegravir) eyaboniswa ukuba nemiphumela emibi kakhulu nokuqina okukhulu kubantu abanokumelana nezidakamizwa ezijulile. Isidakamizwa sisheshe sithuthelwa phezulu ohlwini lwe-HIV olukhethwayo lwe-HIV.
2014
Ukusungulwa komshuwalense wezempilo ongenakuthengiswa (ACA) wandisa umshuwalense wezempilo kubantu abakhokhelwa ngaphambili. Ngaphambi kokuba umthetho uqale ukusebenza, abangaphansi kweyodwa kwabahlanu baseMelika abane-HIV babe nomshuwalense wezempilo wangasese.
Phakathi naleso sikhathi, ososayensi e-Oxford University baphenyisisa kokubili irekhodi lomlando kanye nobufakazi bokufuzo, baphetha ngokuthi i- HIV kungenzeka ukuthi ivela eKinshasa noma eDemocratic Republic of Congo. Kukholelwa ukuthi uhlobo lwe-hybrid lwe-simian virus ye-immunodefiency (SIV) luye lwavela ku- Pan troglodytes izimpungushe ze-troglydytes kumuntu ngenxa yegazi noma ukugcoba inyama.
2015
I-Strategic Timing of Antiretroviral Treatment (START) Isifundo sakhishwa kubaphathamandla kwi-International AIDS Society Conference eVancouver, Canada. Ucwaningo olubonisa ukuthi ukwelashwa kwe-HIV okwenziwe ngesikhathi sokuxilongwa kunganciphisa ingozi yokugula okukhulu ngamaphesenti angu-53 , kwenza ukuba kube nezinguquko ezisheshayo emshweni womphakathi.
Ezinyangeni ezine kamuva, i-WHO yakhipha imihlahlandlela ebuyekeziwe yokukhuthaza ukwelashwa nge-HIV ngesikhathi sokuxilongwa kungakhathaliseki ukuthi i-CD4 count, indawo, imali noma isigaba sesifo. Baqhubeka batusa ukusetshenziswa kwe-PrEP kulabo abasengozini enkulu yokuthola i-HIV.
NgeSuku LwaseNgculazi Lomhlaba, i-CDC ibike ukuthi ukuhlolwa kwegciwane lesandulela ngculazi ngonyaka we-US kwahlehlisiwe ngamaphesenti ayisishiyagalolunye, ngokunciphisa okukhulu phakathi kwabantu abesilisa nabesifazane base-Afrika baseMelika. Ngokuphambene nalokho, amadoda amancane angama-gay ahlala engozini enkulu yokutheleleka ngenkathi abantu base-Afrika baseMelika baseGayida bebikwa ukuthi banethuba lokuthola i-HIV ngesikhathi sokuphila.
Ngo-Disemba 21, i-FDA "yaphakamisa" ukuvinjelwa kwayo iminyaka engu-30 eminikelweni yegazi evela kumadoda angama-gay nabesilisa nabesifazane. Lesi sinqumo senza intukuthelo yabavukeli be-AIDS , abagxeka isinqumo se-FDA sokuvumela kuphela labo madoda ababengazange bahlanganyele ocansini unyaka ukuze banikeze, befakazela ukuthi lesi sinqumo sasibandlulula futhi singavunyelwe ukuvinjelwa.
2016
Ngokusho kwe-WHO, abantu abayizigidi ezingu-38.8 banesandulela ngculazi kanti cishe abantu abayizigidi ezingu-22 babulawe yizimbangela ezihambisana ne-HIV kusukela ekuqaleni kwesifo.
Njengoba ubufakazi bokuthi ukwelashwa kwe-HIV emhlabeni jikelele kungadlulisela amazinga okutheleleka, iNhlangano yeziZwe yaqala uhlelo lwalo lwe-90-90-90 oluhloswe ekuboneni amaphesenti angu-90 abantu abaphila negciwane lesandulela ngculazi, ebeka amaphesenti angama-90 abantu abakhethiwe kahle ekwelapheni, nokuqinisekisa ukuthi amaphesenti angu-90 labo abakwelashwa bakwazi ukufeza imithwalo engavamile engavamile.
> Umthombo:
> UMnyango WezeMpilo waseMelika kanye Nezinsizakalo Zabantu (DHHS). "Isikhathi se-HIV / AIDS." Ihhovisi likaMnumzane uNobhala WezeMpilo kanye neHhovisi likaMnumzane uNobhala Wezindaba Zomphakathi; Washington, DC; Ngo-September 18, 2016.